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forces and the territory concerned. It is designed
to accomplish several tasks, including the
following:
Embarkation by combat loading methods
Movement to the amphibious objective
area, including defense against air, sub-
marine, and surface attack
Preassault operations (preparation of the
objective area), which include gaining
and maintaining local air superiority;
destruction of enemy forces and installa-
tions by naval aircraft, shipboard guns,
and missiles; clearance of mines and under-
water obstacles; reconnaissance of beaches
by underwater demolition groups; deter-
mination of exits inland; and isolation of
the objective area
Ship-to-shore movement by which troops
and their weapons, vehicles, and supplies
are moved ashore by helicopters and
landing craft, or both
Clearance of beach obstacles and move-
ment inland with tank, artillery, and light
and heavy vehicles
Naval gunfire, missile, and air bombard-
ment in support of the assault and the
movement inland
Landing of supplies and logistic support
buildup
Although this list of tasks is incomplete, it
illustrates the many requirements that must be
considered and resolved. An amphibious assault
can succeed only if it is carefully planned,
organized, and timed. Planning is the responsibility
of the commander and an assigned staff. It
demands a complete knowledge of the various
combat arms employed and the numerous
problems unique to an amphibious operation.
EMBARKATION
In a major amphibious operation, troops are
assembled at various ports with their equipment
and vehicles. Consistent with extremely detailed
loading plans formulated during the planning
phase, designated
at specified times,
forces.
ships arrive in these ports
ready to embark the landing
Each item of equipment is loaded aboard in
reverse order of the priority in which it is desired
on the hostile beach. The combat cargo officer
of the ship and the commander of the landing
force unit to be embarked in that ship prepare
individual loading plans for each ship. The
commanding officer of the ship reviews and
approves the loading plan.
As soon as the ship is moored, it is in all
respects ready for loading. All landing craft have
been off-loaded, and appropriate cargo-handling
gear has been placed in readiness. All cargo booms
have been rigged as necessary to handle the
material to be stowed in each hold. The advance
party of troops boards the ship at the embarkation
port and proceeds immediately with the details of
loading. When all cargo is aboard, the remainder
of troops embark. The ship then leaves its berth
and proceeds to an anchorage to await the
forming of the convoy. In crowded ports with few
facilities, the ship may be loaded while at anchor
by a procedure similar to that for ships which are
moored. The only difference is that all cargo and
equipment must be moved out to the ship by
boats, barges, or other lighterage.
REHEARSALS
The schedule for an amphibious operation
usually allows for one or more rehearsals carried
out under conditions approximating those of the
anticipated operation. All units that will take part
in the actual operation should participate in the
rehearsal. Rehearsals test the adequacy of the
plans for the operation as well as the familiarity
of all echelons with the plans. They also test
the timing of detailed operations, the combat
readiness of participating forces, and the
effectiveness of communications. If practicable,
rehearsals include naval gunfire and air support
with live ammunition. Unloading is carried out
as determined during planning to the degree
needed for planners to effectively test tactical and
logistic plans. Unloading tests the operation of
the ship-to-shore movement control organization
and the functioning of the shore party and all
naval components. Following each rehearsal, all
levels of command critique the exercise to
emphasize lessons learned and to correct mistakes.
MOVEMENT TO THE OBJECTIVE
Every stage of movement of the amphibious
task force to the objective area must be planned.
That includes departure of participating ships
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